Forensic Aspects of Driver Perception and Response, Fifth Edition

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Author: David Krauss
ISBN 10: 1-936360-97-0
ISBN 13: 978-1-936360-97–7
Copyright Date Ed: September 25, 2025
Pages: 424
Binding Information: Hard Cover
Size: 8.5 X 11 Inches (US)
Product Code 6097

This new Fifth Edition of Forensic Aspects of Driver Perception and Response contains invaluable new information you need to know about human factors in the driving environment. Divided into four sections highlighting fundamentals of human factors, vehicles and people, the driving environment and human factors case analyses, this comprehensive volume is essential for human factors practitioners or those working in related disciplines.

This text contains the most current information available in the areas of driver perception and driver behavior. Updated from the fourth edition, the book has been reorganized, and updated throughout. All previously existing chapters have been revisited providing in-depth coverage of areas such as light reflecting surfaces, visibility enhancing materials, driver age, gender and experience, fatigue, perception-response time, speed perception, vehicle lighting and marking, glare, roadway design and the driver, railroad grade crossings, roadway signage, weather, driver distraction, and in-vehicle technologies including fully automated vehicles. Additionally, new chapters have been added to specifically address trucks, motorcycles, pedestrians, bicycles and other forms of micromobility.

If your work involves issues of driver perception and driver behavior in any capacity, this book is an invaluable addition to your reference library.

What's New In This Edition?

The book has been reorganized to make relevant information more accessible
Every chapter is new or updated including many new visuals, case studies and updated information
Nine entirely new chapters since the previous edition
Continued emphasis on fundamentals of visual and cognitive processing and how these processes interact in the driving environment
Multiple chapters dedicated to methods for applying human-factors concepts to forensic accident investigations
Contributions from over 30 authors
Each chapter includes a header indicating the contributing authors for those chapters
Incorporates the input and experience from several forensic human factors professionals as well as traffic engineers, motorcycle experts and accident reconstructionists

Topics Include

Light and Its Measurement
Vision, Audition, Vibration and The Processing of Information
Driver Eye Movements and Visual Attention
Lighting, Conspicuity and Perception
Judgments of Speed and Distance
Driver Perception-Response Time
Passenger Vehicles
Trucks and Large Vehicles
Motorcycles
Bicycles
Railroads
Pedestrians
Micromobility
Driver Experience and Age
Driver Distraction
In-Vehicle Technology and the Driver
Human Factors of Automated Vehicles
Driver Impairment
Weather and Driving
Lighting Sources Other than Vehicle Headlights
Roadway Design and the Driver
The Visibility Provided by Vehicle Lighting Systems
Nighttime Driving, Contrast and Expectancy
“Critical Window” Approach to Accident Investigations
Use of Visual Demonstratives to Represent Visibility Conditions
Evaluation of Visibility in the Field

Contents

Forward

Part I: Fundamentals of Human Factors, Perception and Statistics

Chapter 1: Introduction

David Krauss and Paul Olson

1.1 Purpose and Scope

1.2 Human Factors in Accident Reconstruction

A. What is Human Factors?

B. Introduction to Human Factors and Motor Vehicles

C. History

D. Human Factors in Product Evaluation and Development

E. Applicability of Human Factors to Accident Reconstruction

F. What isn’t Human Factors

1.3 Human Variability and Applicability of Scientific Research

A. The Problem

B. Descriptive Statistics

C. Correlation

D. Inferential Statistics

E. The Concept of Threshold

F. Interactions and the Application of Controlled Studies to Real-World Situations

1.4 Expectancy

A. What It Is

B. Driver Expectancy

1.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 2: Light and Its Measurement

David Krauss and Paul Olson

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Nature of Light

2.3 Definitions

A. Light-Reflecting Surfaces

1. Diffuse reflectors

2. Specular reflectors

3. Retroreflectors

B. Miscellaneous Visibility-Enhancing Materials

1. Fluorescent materials

2. Luminous materials

2.4 Photometry

A. Luminous Intensity and Illuminance

B. Luminance

C. Means of Measurement

D. Calculating Light Metrics Following Measurement

2.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 3: Vision, Audition, Vibration and The Processing of Information

David Krauss and Paul Olson

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Vision

A. Measurement of Visual Performance

1. Acuity

2. Contrast sensitivity function

3. Other measures of visual performance

4. Relationship between vision tests and driving performance

B. Structure and Performance of the Eye

1. Structure

2. The functioning of the visual system at different levels of illumination

3. Implications for vision due to the structure of the eye

C. Glare

1. Disability glare

2. Discomfort glare

D. The Useful Field of View

E. The Twilight Period

3.3 Auditory Issues

A. Problems with Sound

B. Noise

3.4 Vibration

3.5 Information Processing

3.6 Memory Questions

3.7 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 4: Driver Eye Movements and Visual Attention

David Krauss, Sunwoo Kwon, Abtine Tavassoli, and Paul Olson

4.1 Introduction

A. Terminology

B. Visual Attention

C. Methodology

4.2 Driver Eye Movements

4.3 Driver Experience

4.4 Negotiating Curves

4.5 Effects of Drugs and Alcohol

4.6 Effects of Fatigue

4.7 Vehicle Characteristics

4.8 Age and Sex

4.9 Interior Glances

4.10 Effect of In-Vehicle Devices

4.11 Use of Mirrors

A. Duration of Routine Mirror Glances

B. Duration of Mirror Glances in Connection with Merges and Lane Changes

C. Mirror and Direct Rearward Glances When Changing Lanes and Merging

D. The Timing of Rearward Glances with Respect to the Gore

4.12 The Effect of Secondary Glances on Accident Avoidance

4.13 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 5: Lighting, Conspicuity and Perception

David Krauss, J. Jay Todd, Robert Dewar, and Paul Olson

5.1 Introduction

A. Lighting

B. Conspicuity

C. Visual Perception

5.2 Perception as Contrasted to Sensation

A. Definition

B. The Nature of Perception

C. Visual Perceptual Principles of Grouping

D. Perceiving Space

5.3 Misperception and Perceptual Set

5.4 Applications

5.5 Perceptual Limitations While Driving

A. Problems with the Roadway

B. Violations of Expectancy

C. Judging Distance to Lights

5.6 The Intruding Vehicle

5.7 Eyewitness Testimony

5.8 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 6: Judgments of Speed and Distance

David Krauss, J. Jay Todd, and Paul Olson

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Perception of Distance

6.3 Perception of Speed

6.4 Threshold for Closing Speed

A. Gap acceptance

6.5 Chapter Overview

References

Part II: Driving: Vehicles and People

Chapter 7: Driver Perception-Response Time

David Krauss, J. Jay Todd, and Paul Olson

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Background

A. Definition

B. Stages of Perception-Response Time

7.3 Human Perception-Response Time

A. General Studies of Response Time

B. Driver Perception-Response Time

7.4 Factors Affecting Perception-Response Time

A. Detection

B. Identification

C. Decision

D. Response

E. Night vs. Day

F. Chemicals, Driver Fatigue

G. Age and Gender

H. Cognitive Load

I. Angular Position of the Target

J. Summary of PRT Variability

7.5 How PRT is Studied

A. Analyses of data from the experimental literature

B. Studies using motorists who are unaware of measures being taken

C. Controlled, in-car studies

D. Studies conducted in simulators

7.6 Overview of Research

7.7 Situations that Do Not Fit the Perception-Response Model

A. No Clearly Defined Entry

B. Erroneous Assumption or Identification

7.8 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 8: Passenger Vehicles

David Krauss, Douglas Young, Jennifer Park, and Kelly LoVoi

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Passenger Vehicle Design

A. Vision Limitations

8.3 Driver Characteristics

8.4 Unintended Acceleration

8.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 9: Trucks and Large Vehicles

Young Bui, Elizabeth Pettit, and David Krauss

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Truck Conspicuity

A. Conspicuity standards

i. Retroreflective Tape

9.3 Conspicuity Treatments for Larger Vehicles

i. Collisions

ii. Collision Avoidance

iii. Nighttime Conspicuity

9.3 Truck Driver Behavior

9.4 Trucking Standard of Care

9.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 10: Motorcycles

Chason Coelho, Young Bui, Steve Garets, and David Krauss

10.1 Introduction

A. Definitions

B. Motorcycles vs. Passenger Vehicles

C. Crash Statistics

10.2 Motorcycle Conspicuity

10.3 Perceptual Judgments of Motorcycles vs Passenger Vehicles

10.4 Motorcycle Operator Perception-Response Time

10.5 Motorcycle Operator Standard of Care

A. Sight Distance

B. Target Fixation

C. Braking Systems and Operator Control

D. Case Study - Rear Wheel Lockup

E. Case Study - Overspeed

10.6 Advanced Rider Assistance Systems (ARAS)

10.7 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 11: Bicycles

Young Bui, Breanne Yerkes, and David Krauss

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Bicyclist Looking Behavior

A. Children

11.3 Bicyclist Perception Response Time

11.4 Motor Vehicle Driver Behaviors Towards Bicyclists

A. Perceptual Issues

i. Conspicuity Treatments

B. Overtaking of Cyclists

i. Dooring

11.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 12: Railroads

David Krauss and Robert Dewar

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Driver Perception of Railroad Crossing Hazards

12.3 Recognition Errors

12.4 Decision Errors

12.5 Action Errors

12.6 Traffic Control at Crossings

12.7 Remaining Problems and the Need for Further Research

12.8 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 13: Pedestrians

David Krauss, Danielle King, Nicole Keller, and Jacqueline Zimmermann

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Pedestrian Speed

13.3 The "Dart Out"

13.4 Pedestrians’ Decision Making and Behavior When Crossing

13.5 Pedestrian Conspicuity

13.6 Driver Expectation and Pedestrians

13.7 Crossing Designs

   A. Treatments Implemented Near Pedestrian Crossings

B. Treatments Designed to Influence Pedestrian Behavior

13.8 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 14: Micromobility

Nicole Keller, Young Bui, Sunwoo Kwon, Kelly Byrne, Jacqueline Zimmermann, and David Krauss

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Rules and Regulations

A. Helmet Laws

B. Speed Laws

C. Where to Ride

D. Variability in Rules and Regulations

14.3 Perceptual Issues

14.4 Operator Behavior

A. E-Scooters

B. E-Bikes

14.5 Non-motorized Micromobility

14.6 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 15: Driver Experience and Age

David Krauss, Danielle King, Sunwoo Kwon, Robert Dewar, and Paul Olson

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Driving Experience

15.3 Risk-taking Behavior in Adolescence

15.4 Older Drivers: Who Are These Guys?

15.5 Driving by the Elderly

15.6 Sensory Changes

A. Vision

B. Other Senses

15.7 Judgment of Closing Speed—Gap Acceptance

15.8 Cognitive and Motor Performance

A. Attention and Cognition

B. Perception of Roadway Hazards

C. Motor Performance

D. Older Drivers and Pedal Errors

15.9 Strategies for Improvement

15.10 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 16: Driver Distraction

Chris Monk, David Krauss, David Cades, Katie Lucaites, and Robert Dewar

16.1 Introduction

16.2 What is Driver Distraction?

16.3 Distraction and Inattention

16.4 Useful Field of View

16.5 Sources of Distraction

A. Various Sources

B. Visual Clutter

C. Roadside Advertising

D. Driving During Cell Phone Use

E. Distraction from Technology

16.6 Consequences of Distraction

16.7 Driver Characteristics and Condition

A. Age

B. Gender

C. Emotions

D. Alcohol

16.8 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 17: In-Vehicle Technology and the Driver

David Cades, John Campbell, Robyn Brinkerhoff, Daniel Palac, and David Krauss

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Types of In-Vehicle Technology

A. Non-Driving-Related Technology

B. Driving-Related Technology

17.3 Effects of In-Vehicle Technology on Driver Behavior

A. Driver Assistance

B. Negative Effects on Driver Behavior

C. Assessing Driver State

17.4 System Design Guidelines for In-vehicle Electronic Devices

A. Comparison of Guidelines

B. Guidelines for Message Display and Appearance

C. Guidelines for Usability

D. Guidelines for Testing

E. Overview of Proposed Phase 2 Guidelines

17.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 18: Human Factors of Automated Vehicles

Shane J. Davis, Iiona D. Scully, Christian Hoyos, Ropafadzo Denga, and David Cades

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Levels of Automation

18.3 Transitioning Between Human Control and Automation Control

A. Takeover from Automation in Level 3 Vehicles

B. Takeover from Automation in Level 4 and Level 5 Vehicles

18.4 Building Driver Trust and Acceptance In Automated Vehicles

A. Types of Trust

B. Features that Influence Trust and Acceptance

C. Guidelines for HMI Takeover from Automation for Level 3, Level 4, and Level 5 Vehicles

18.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 19: Driver Impairment

Katherine Becker, David Krauss, Amber Gold, Kelly Byrne, Robert Dewar, and Paul Olson

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Alcohol

A. Overview

B. Perception

C. Decision Making and Impulsivity

D. Motor Control

E. Decision-Making and Inhibition

F. Perception-Response Time

19.3 Other Drugs

A. Cannabis

B. Stimulants

C. Opioids

D. Benzodiazepines

19.4 Fatigue

19.5 Chapter Overview

References

Part III: Driving: Environment

Chapter 20: Weather and Driving

David Krauss and Robert Dewar

20.1 Adverse Weather

A. Rain

B. Snow

C. Fog

D. Glare

20.2 Traffic Control Devices

20.3 Pedestrian Behavior

20.4 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 21: Lighting Sources Other Than Vehicle Headlights

David Krauss and Paul Olson

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Fixed Lighting Sources

A. Mercury

B. High-Pressure Sodium

C. Metal Halide

D. Fluorescent

E. Low-Pressure Sodium

F. Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)

21.3 The Distribution of Illuminance from Street Lamps

21.4 Loss in Performance of Light Sources

21.5 The Scene When Illuminated by Fixed Sources

21.6 Research on the Performance of Fixed Lighting Systems

21.7 Recommendations for Street Lighting

21.8 Assessment of Visibility in a Field Investigation

21.9 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 22: Roadway Design and the Driver

David Krauss, John Campbell, Andrew Kwasniak, and Robert Dewar

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Positive Guidance

22.3 Driver Workload

22.4 Sight Distance

A. Decision Sight Distance

B. Stopping Sight Distance

C. Passing Sight Distance

D. Intersection Sight Distance

E. Additional Sight Distance Factors

22.5 Roadway Design

A. Roadway Width

B. Intersections

i. Dilemma Zone

C. Roundabouts

D. Curves

22.7 Traffic Calming

22.8 Road Safety Assessments

22.9 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 23: Roadway Traffic Control Devices

David Krauss, Andrew Kwasniak, and Robert Dewar

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Sign Criteria

23.3 Problems with Signs

23.4 Regulatory Signs

23.5 Compliance with Regulatory Signs

23.6 Warning Signs

23.7 Guide Signs

23.8 Bilingual Signs

23.9 Nighttime Conditions

23.10 Environmental Factors

23.11 Changeable Message Signs

23.12 Sign Conspicuity

23.13 Driver Age

23.14 Traffic Signs and IVIS

23.15 Traffic Signs and Traffic Accidents

23.16 Traffic Signals

23.17 Chapter Overview

References

Part IV: Driving: Human Factors Case Analyses

Chapter 24: The Visibility Provided by Vehicle Lighting Systems

David Krauss and Paul Olson

24.1 Introduction

24.2 The Importance of Target Contrast

A. Definition

B. Calculating Contrast

24.3 The Reflectivity of Objects in the Real World

24.4 Driver Vision at Night

A. Target Reflectance

B. Target Location

C. Target Size

D. Driver Age

E. Contrast Sensitivity

F. Headlight Misaim

G. Headlight Intensity

I. Glare

24.5 Vehicle Lighting Systems

A. Technology used in automotive lighting

B. Enhanced vision systems

C. Characteristics of U.S. headlights

D. The intensity-visibility distance relationship

E. Implications

24.6 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 25: Nighttime Driving, Contrast and Expectancy

David Krauss and Paul Olson

25.1 What is "Visible" vs. What is "Seen"

A. Use of Video Evidence

B. Nighttime Hazard Detection

C. Expectancy

   D. Contrast

25.2 Nighttime Driving Speeds

25.3 When Drivers “Overdrive” Their Headlights

25.4 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 26: “Critical Window” Approach to Accident Investigations

David Krauss

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Critical Stopping Distance

26.3 Looming

26.4 Other Factors That Define the Critical Window

A. Sight Line Restrictions

B. Conspicuity Limitations

C. The "Dart-Out", Revisited

26.5 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 27: Use of Visual Demonstratives to Represent Visibility Conditions

David Krauss, J. Jay Todd, Stein Husher, and Paul Olson

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Limitations in the Camera-Lens System

27.3 Limitations and Appropriate Applications of Video and Animation for Representations of Conspicuity

27.4 Perceptual-Cognitive Issues

A. Field of View

B. Viewing Time

C. Adaptation Level

D. Image Size

E. Depth Perception

F. Glare

G. Observer Expectancy

27.5 Implications

27.6 Chapter Overview

References

Chapter 28: Evaluation of Visibility in the Field

David Krauss, Elizabeth Pettit, Paul Olson, and Eugene Farber

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Visual Angle

28.3 Lighting, Glare and Visibility

A. Twilight periods

B. Assessing Artificial Light Sources

28.4 Calculating Sight Lines

28.5 Binocular and Ambinocular Vision

28.6 Obstruction of the Forward Field of View

28.7 A-Pillar Obstruction of Intersecting Vehicles

28.8 A-Pillar Obstruction of Pedestrians and Bicyclists

28.9 Measuring Pillar Obstructions in the Field

A. Measuring the Ambinocular A-Pillar Obstruction of a Pedestrian

   B. Measuring the Ambinocular A-Pillar Obstruction of an Intersecting Vehicle

28.10 Obstructions to the Side and Rear

   A. A Note on Convex Mirrors (“Objects in Mirror Are Closer than They Appear”)

   B. Mirrors and Overtaking Vehicles

   C. Pillar Obstructions to the Side and Rear Direct Fields-of-View

28.11 The Field of View from Large Trucks

28.12 Measuring the Field of View in Large Trucks

28.13 Chapter Overview

References

Author List

Index